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Pelletier N (2018) Social sustainability assessment of Canadian egg production facilities: Methods, analysis, and recommendations. Sustain 10:1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051601 Prasara-A and Gheewala ( 2019) evaluated social life cycle of rice cultivation in Thailand. The result showed that the rice cultivation had the best performance in working hour, forced labour, and child labour. Health and safety of workers showed high performance. The rice production in Thailand showed good performances on local community considering health and safety with 100%. There was no good marketing for rice in Thailand and farm owner sold freely. The farmers did not have access to loans and technology development. Nabavi-Pelesaraei A, Rafiee S, Mohtasebi SS et al (2019) Comprehensive model of energy, environmental impacts and economic in rice milling factories by coupling adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system and life cycle assessment. J Clean Prod 217:742–756 The majority of rice is related to irrigation (1,054,381 ha). The choice of methods conditioning performance is determined by the variety and quality control of water. Aparcana S, Salhofer S (2013) Development of a social impact assessment methodology for recycling systems in low-income countries. Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1106–1115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0546-8
Gross, B. L.; Zhao, Z. (2014). "Archaeological and genetic insights into the origins of domesticated rice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (17): 6190–7. Bibcode: 2014PNAS..111.6190G. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1308942110. PMC 4035933. PMID 24753573. Paddy rice production in Malaysia is the major economic activity with the mean area of 651,000 ha in the 1900s. However, with regard to the land use, paddy rice is the third main crop after palm oil and rubber concessions in Malaysia (ICDC 2002). The paddy rice production in Malaysia contributed only 0.4% of global paddy production (Mahmudul et al. 2010). Most rice farms in Malaysia are smaller than 2 ha. Only 3% of the rice farms are larger than 3 ha (Firdaus et al. 2020). The northwest of Selangor is identified as a productive land for crop cultivation in terms of soil fertility and moderate climate (Er and Mokhtar 2013). To cultivate rice, there are several essential steps involved. These include land preparation, seed selection, transplanting or direct seeding, water management, fertilization, weed control, pest and disease management, crop monitoring and maintenance, and harvesting. See also: Austronesian peoples and Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia Neolithic southern China [ edit ] Map of Neolithic China
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Shifts in rice farming practices in China reduce greenhouse gas methane". Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 11 January 2003 . Retrieved 19 December 2002. Reduced water use: By reducing the number of irrigation events required, AWD can reduce water use by up to 30%. It can help farmers cope with water scarcity and increase reliability of downstream irrigation water supply. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2020) Guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products and organizations 2020. Paris, France: United Nations Environment Programme Ibrahim Adamu, however, linked the scarcity of paddy rice to floods recorded in the state that destroyed more than half of the rice farms in the state.
D’Eusanio M, Serreli M, Zamagni A, Petti L (2018) Assessment of social dimension of a jar of honey: a methodological outline. J Clean Prod 199:503–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.157 Rice is a fundamental food in many cultural cuisines around the world and is considered a staple in many diets. Its cultivation, origin, and uses are deep-seated in ancient human history. What is Paddy Rice?
Previous studies have shown that effective fertilizer and water management practices under system of rice intensification coupled with alternate wetting and drying irrigation could reduce GHG emissions by 40% ( Ku et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018; Islam et al., 2020; Ramesh and Rathika, 2020; Sander et al., 2020; Win et al., 2020). Alternate wetting and drying irrigation greatly enhances the diffusion of atmospheric oxygen (O 2) into the soil, thus reducing the emission of CH 4 ( Yang et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2015; Islam et al., 2020). Slight increase N 2O emission in AWD irrigation has been reported by Islam et al. (2020), Ku et al. (2017), Li et al. (2018) due to the increased nitrification of NH 4+ during the dry episode and the subsequent denitrification of NO 3- during re-wetting of dry soils, but it still reduces total GHG emissions from rice fields mainly due to reduced CH 4 emissions. Reducing the emission of CH 4 from the soil is the most effective way to mitigate the global warming potential in rice cultivation ( Sander et al., The result for the workers of rice cultivation showed bad performance in Iran with regarding to health and safety, wage, and worker satisfactory. The result for worker in Malaysia showed good performance in health and safety dimension (87%). I-CVI is evaluated as the number of panellists giving a scoring of 3 or 4, divided by the number of panellists. I-CVI is the proportion of agreement about relevant of each item. The I-CVI = 1 means that all panellists agree with the item (Mohajan 2017). The I-CVI should not be lower than 0.78 for doing piolet test (Mohajan 2017).
Lan noted that though the paddy was not readily available as it should be, however, the prices had been going up in recent times. a b Sang, Anisia Jati; Tay, Kai Meng; Lim, Chee Peng; Saeid, Nahavandi (2018). "Application of a Genetic-Fuzzy FMEA to Rainfed Lowland Rice Production in Sarawak: Environmental, Health, and Safety Perspectives". IEEE Access. 6: 74628–74647. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2883115. To date, there are several S-LCA researches in the agricultural sector globally, such as olive production in Italy (Iofrida et al. 2020), pork in Sweden (Zira et al. 2020), cocoa in Malaysia (Sharaai et al. 2020), honey in Italy (D’Eusanio et al. 2018), dairy farm in Ireland (Chen and Holden 2017), citrus in Italy (Iofrida et al. 2019), soybean in Brazil (Pashaei Kamali et al. 2017), sugar in Thailand (Prasara-A and Gheewala 2018), and milk (Revéret et al. 2015), and eggs in Canada (Pelletier 2018). Only a limited study (Prasara-A and Gheewala 2019) considered the S-LCA of rice production in Thailand. The majority of sustainability evaluation studies of rice production focused on environmental sustainability. The social performance of paddy rice is hardly regarded.Zhang, Chi (2013). "The Qujialing–Shijiahe culture in the middle Yangzi River valley". In Underhill, Anne P. (ed.). A Companion to Chinese Archaeology. John Wiley & Sons. pp.510–534. ISBN 9781118325780. The result showed that the social performance of workers and farmers in Malaysia was better than Iran because of low cost with high yield for farmers, contributing to increased income. Rice cultivation in Iran for local community did not show good performance regarding health and safety because of burning of rice residue. Around 62% of local Iranian people reported air pollution from rice residue burning. However, the overall social performance for local community was not different in Iran and Malaysia, showing good performances with respect to job opportunity. Sexual harassment was identified as one of the negative social issues in Iran with the score of 60%, including unwanted sexual attention. Moreover, the farmers showed poor performance in Iran, resulting from low satisfactory from income, and low yield and high cost of paddy production in Iran. Conclusion
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