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Water temperature changes of more than 1–2°C (33.8–35.6°F) or salinity changes can kill some species of coral. Under such environmental stresses, corals expel their Symbiodinium; without them, coral tissues reveal the white of their skeletons, an event known as coral bleaching. [105] a b "Threats to Coral Reefs". Coral Reef Alliance. 2010. Archived from the original on 1 December 2011 . Retrieved 5 December 2011.

Coral’s color family varies, depending on whether it’s red coral, orange coral, or pink coral. Most modern viewers would consider coral to be a shade of orange-pink, placing it within the orange color family, and certainly within the gentler warm side of the spectrum. Coral sits within the orange or red color families, depending on whether it contains more red, pink, or orange. Main article: Environmental issues with coral reefs Threats [ edit ] A healthy coral reef has a striking level of biodiversity in many forms of marine life. The global moisture budget is primarily being influenced by tropical sea surface temperatures from the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). [121] The Southern Hemisphere has a unique meteorological feature positioned in the southwestern Pacific Basin called the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), which contains a perennial position within the Southern Hemisphere. During ENSO warm periods, the SPCZ reverses orientation extending from the equator down south through Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and towards the French Polynesian Islands; and due east towards South America affecting geochemistry of corals in tropical regions. [122] The body of the polyp may be roughly compared in a structure to a sac, the wall of which is composed of two layers of cells. The outer layer is known technically as the ectoderm, the inner layer as the endoderm. Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of gelatinous substance termed mesoglea, secreted by the cell layers of the body wall. [22] The mesoglea can contain skeletal elements derived from cells migrated from the ectoderm.

Rugose or horn corals became dominant by the middle of the Silurian period, and during the Devonian, corals flourished with more than 200 genera. The rugose corals existed in solitary and colonial forms, and were also composed of calcite. [89] Both rugose and tabulate corals became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event [88] [90] 250million years ago (along with 85% of marine species), and there is a gap of tens of millions of years until new forms of coral evolved in the Triassic. Apprill, Amy; Weber, Laura G.; Santoro, Alyson E. (2016). "Distinguishing between Microbial Habitats Unravels Ecological Complexity in Coral Microbiomes". mSystems. 1 (5): e00143–16. doi: 10.1128/mSystems.00143-16. PMC 5080407. PMID 27822559. Brownlee, Colin (2009). "pH regulation in symbiotic anemones and corals: A delicate balancing act". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (39): 16541–16542. Bibcode: 2009PNAS..10616541B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0909140106. PMC 2757837. PMID 19805333. In the Gulf of Mexico, where sea temperatures are rising, cold-sensitive staghorn and elkhorn coral have shifted in location. [114] Cameron, Kerry A.; Harrison, Peter L. (26 March 2020). "Density of coral larvae can influence settlement, post-settlement colony abundance and coral cover in larval restoration". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 5488. Bibcode: 2020NatSR..10.5488C. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-62366-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7099096. PMID 32218470.

a b Parmesan, C. (2006). "Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 37: 637–69. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110100. Health and Disease Signatures of the Coral Microbiome • iBiology". iBiology . Retrieved 2020-05-14.Yamashita, Hiroshi (2014). "Establishment of Coral–Algal Symbiosis Requires Attraction and Selection". PLOS ONE. 9 (5): e97003. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...997003Y. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097003. PMC 4019531. PMID 24824794. Today, with coral beds becoming sadly more elusive, coral represents the natural environment at its rarest and most precious. Pantone selected Living Coral as its Color of the Year because it “ emits the desired, familiar, and energizing aspects of color found in nature.” For Pantone, it’s a color of positivity and hope. Corals are shallow, colonial organisms that integrate oxygen and trace elements into their skeletal aragonite ( polymorph of calcite) crystalline structures as they grow. Geochemical anomalies within the crystalline structures of corals represent functions of temperature, salinity and oxygen isotopic composition. Such geochemical analysis can help with climate modeling. [119] The ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 (δ 18O), for example, is a proxy for temperature. USGS scientists publish long-read microbiome sequences from temperate coral, providing community resource for probe and primer design, United States Geological Survey, 6 March 2019. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. a b c Veron, J.E.N. (2000). Corals of the World. Vol 3 (3rded.). Australia: Australian Institute of Marine Sciences and CRR Qld. ISBN 978-0-642-32236-4.