The Roman Empire the Empire of the Edomite

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Schwartz, Daniel R. 2009. Josephus on Herod’s Uncles. In Israel’s Land; Papers Presented to Israel Shatzman on His Jubilee. Edited by Joseph Geiger, Hannah M. Cotton and Guy D. Stiebel. Raanana: The Open University of Israel, Israel Exploration Society, pp. 39*–52*. [ Google Scholar] Bienkowski, Piotr, and Leonie Sedman. 2001. Busayra and Judah: Stylistic Parallels in the Material Culture. In Studies in the Archaeology of the Iron Age in Israel and Jordan. Edited by Amihai Mazar. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, pp. 310–25. [ Google Scholar] Stern, Ian. 2007. The Population of Persian-period Idumea According to the Ostraca: A Study of Ethnic Boundaries and Ethnogenesis. In A Time of Change: Judah and its Neighbors in the Persian and Early Hellenistic Period. Library of Second Temple Studies 65. Edited by Yigal Levin. London: T&T Clark, pp. 203–38. [ Google Scholar] Eshel, Esther. 2014. Iron Age, Phoenician and Aramaic Inscriptions. In The Excavations of Maresha Subterranean Complex 57: The “Heliodorus” Cave. BAR International Series 2652. Edited by Ian Stern. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 77–94. [ Google Scholar]

And these are the kings who ruled in Edom before there was a king in Israel: Bela son of Beor was the king of Edom; the name of his city was Dinhabah. When Bela died, Jobab son of Zerah from Bozrah became the next king. When Jobab died, he was followed by Hushan from the land of the Temanites. When Hushan died, he was followed by Hadad son of Bedad; he was the king who defeated the Midianites in Moab; the name of his city was Avith. When Hadad died, Samlah of Masrekah became the next king. When Samlah died, Shaul from Rehoboth-on-the-River became king. When Shaul died, he was followed by Baal-Hanan son of Acbor. When Baal-Hanan son of Acbor died, Hadad became king; the name of his city was Pau; his wife’s name was Mehetabel daughter of Matred, daughter of Me-Zahab. Esau took his wives from the women of Canaan: Adah daughter of Elon the Hittite, and Oholibamah daughter of Anah and granddaughter of Zibeon the Hivite—3 also Basemath daughter of Ishmael and sister of Nebaioth. Thareani, Yifat. 2010. The Spirit of Clay: “Edomite Pottery” and Social Awareness in the Late Iron Age. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 359: 35–55. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef]

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Reich, Ronny. 2013. Miqva’ot Taharah in the Period of the Second Temple and in the Period of the Mishnah and Talmud. Jerusalem: Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi and the Israel Exploration Society. (In Hebrew) [ Google Scholar] Geraty, Lawrence T. 1975. The Khirbet el-Kôm Bilingual Ostracon. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 220: 55–61. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] The names of Esau’s wives listed here differ from those named in Genesis 26:34 ( Judith replaces Adah) and Genesis 28:9 (Mahalath replaces Basemath). It is unclear if these are variations of the wife’s name or a second name. We know it was common for women to have two names and it is possible their names changed when they moved from Canaan to settle in Seir. Regardless, all verses agree on the central point – that Esau married foreign Canaanite wives. Oholibamah – wife of Esau Fantalkin, Alexander, and Oren Tal. 2012. Judah and Its Neighbors in the Fourth Century BCE: A Time of Major Transformations. In From Judah to Judaea: Socio-Economic Structures and Processes in the Persian Period. Edited by Johannes Unsok Ro. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, pp. 133–96. [ Google Scholar]

Stern, Ephraim. 2001. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible vol. II: The Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Periods. ABRL. New York: Doubleday. [ Google Scholar]

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These were the sons of Zibeon: Aiah and Anah (who discovered the hot springs in the wilderness as he pastured the donkeys of his father Zibeon). Axelsson, Lars Eric. 1987. The Lord Rose Up from Seir: Studies in the History and Traditions of the Negev and Southern Judah. Coniectanea Biblica Old Testament series 25. Lund: Almqvist & Wiksell International. [ Google Scholar] Tal, Oren. 2011. Negotiating Identity in an International Context under Achaemenid Rule: The Indigenous Coinages of Persian-Period Palestine as an Allegory. In Judah and the Judeans in the Achaemenid Period: Negotiating Identity in an International Context. Edited by Oded Lipschits, Gary N. Knoppers and Manfred Oeming. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, pp. 445–59. [ Google Scholar] Signage and paths were developed to guide visitors through the foundations and walls of the Edomite palace, temple, baths, a meandering market, and city gates, which stand at the highest peak in the town. Lucy, Sam. 2005. Ethnic and Cultural Identities. In The Archaeology of Identity: Approaches to Gender, Age, Status, Ethnicity and Religion. Edited by Margarita Díaz-Andreu, Sam Lucy, Stasa Babić and David N. Edwards. London and New York: Routledge, pp. 86–109. [ Google Scholar]

Eshel, Hanan, and Boaz Zissu. 2006. Two Notes on the History and Archaeology of Judea in the Persian Period. In "I Will Speak the Riddles of Ancient Times": Archaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday. Edited by Aren M. Maeir and Pierre De Miroschedji. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, vol. II, pp. 828–31. [ Google Scholar]

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As an example, Jewish historian and rabbi Ari Lobel explains the most commonly accepted cultural stance: Vriezen, Theodoor Christiaan. 1965. The Edomitic Deity Qaus. Oudtestamentische Studiën 14: 330–53. [ Google Scholar] Peterson, Eugene H. The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005. Print. The NET Bible The sons of Zibeon were Aiah and Anah—this is the same Anah who found the hot springs in the wilderness while herding his father Zibeon’s donkeys. Adah bore Eliphaz to Esau, Basemath bore Reuel, 5 and Oholibamah bore Jeush, Jalam and Korah. These were the sons of Esau, who were born to him in Canaan.

Rollston, Christopher A. 2003. Non-Provenanced Epigraphs I: Pillaged Antiquities, Northwest Semitic Forgeries, and Protocols for Laboratory Tests. Maarav 10: 135–93. [ Google Scholar] Aḥituv, Shmuel, and Ada Yardeni. 2004. Seventeen Aramaic Texts on Ostraca from Idumea: The Late Persian to the Early Hellenistic Periods. Maarav 11: 7–23. [ Google Scholar]

Mibzar – name means “fortification”, possibly associated with the city of Mabsara in northern Edom. Appelbaum, Alan. 2009. “The Idumaeans” in Josephus’. The Jewish War. Journal for the Study of Judaism 40: 1–22. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] The World view of Esau has been passed down as a cultural inheritance throughout history from Edom, to the Roman Empire, to the Catholic Church, to Modern Europe and most recently to the United States and its ‘empire’– in other words, Western Civilization as a whole.” Beit Arieh, Itzhaq, and Bruce Cresson. 1985. An Edomite Ostracon from Ḥorvat ʿUza. Tel Aviv 12: 96–101. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef]