The Ultimate Dinosaur Encyclopedia

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Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. 2007. Dinosaurs: the most complete, up-to-date encyclopedia for dinosaur lovers of all ages. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-82419-7 By contrast, ornithischians—"bird-hipped", from the Greek ornitheios (ὀρνίθειος) meaning "of a bird" and ischion (ἰσχίον) meaning "hip joint"—had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores. Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2007). Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages. Illustrated by Luis V. Rey. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-82419-7. LCCN 2006102491. OCLC 77486015 . Retrieved October 22, 2019.

Langer, Max C.; Abdala, Fernando; Richter, Martha; Benton, Michael J. (1999). "Un dinosaure sauropodomorphe dans le Trias supérieur (Carnien) du Sud du Brésil" [A sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Upper Triassic (Carman) of southern Brazil]. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série IIA. Amsterdam: Elsevier on behalf of the French Academy of Sciences. 329 (7): 511–517. Bibcode: 1999CRASE.329..511L. doi: 10.1016/S1251-8050(00)80025-7. ISSN 1251-8050. The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous, caused the extinction of all dinosaur groups except for the neornithine birds. Some other diapsid groups, including crocodilians, dyrosaurs, sebecosuchians, turtles, lizards, snakes, sphenodontians, and choristoderans, also survived the event. [126] Research by Matthew G. Baron, David B. Norman, and Paul M. Barrett in 2017 suggested a radical revision of dinosaurian systematics. Phylogenetic analysis by Baron et al. recovered the Ornithischia as being closer to the Theropoda than the Sauropodomorpha, as opposed to the traditional union of theropods with sauropodomorphs. This would cause sauropods and kin to fall outside traditional dinosaurs, so they re-defined Dinosauria as the last common ancestor of Triceratops horridus, Passer domesticus and Diplodocus carnegii, and all of its descendants, to ensure that sauropods and kin remain included as dinosaurs. They also resurrected the clade Ornithoscelida to refer to the group containing Ornithischia and Theropoda. [15] [16] General description Triceratops skeleton, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County University of Southampton (September 29, 2021). "Two New Species of Large Predatory Dinosaur With Crocodile-Like Skulls Discovered on Isle of Wight". SciTechDaily. Lambert, David; The Diagram Group (1990). The Dinosaur Data Book: The Definitive, Fully Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-75896-8. LCCN 89092487. OCLC 21833417 . Retrieved October 14, 2019.Currie, Philip J.; Koppelhus, Eva B.; Shugar, Martin A.; Wright, Joanna L., eds. (2004). Feathered Dragons: Studies on the Transition from Dinosaurs to Birds. Life of the Past. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34373-4. LCCN 2003019035. OCLC 52942941. The Ischigualasto Formation ( radiometrically dated at 231-230 million years old [107]) has produced the early saurischian Eoraptor, originally considered a member of the Herrerasauridae [108] but now considered to be an early sauropodomorph, along with the herrerasaurids Herrerasaurus and Sanjuansaurus, and the sauropodomorphs Chromogisaurus, Eodromaeus, and Panphagia. [109] Eoraptor 's likely resemblance to the common ancestor of all dinosaurs suggests that the first dinosaurs would have been small, bipedal predators. [110] [111] [112] The Santa Maria Formation (radiometrically dated to be older, at 233.23million years old [113]) has produced the herrerasaurids Gnathovorax and Staurikosaurus, along with the sauropodomorphs Bagualosaurus, Buriolestes, Guaibasaurus, Macrocollum, Nhandumirim, Pampadromaeus, Saturnalia, and Unaysaurus. [109] The Pebbly Arkose Formation, which is of uncertain age but was likely comparable to the other two, has produced the sauropodomorph Mbiresaurus, along with an unnamed herrerasaurid. [106] Zhou, Zhonghe (October 2004). "The origin and early evolution of birds: discoveries, disputes, and perspectives from fossil evidence" (PDF). Naturwissenschaften. Berlin: Springer Science+Business Media. 91 (10): 455–471. Bibcode: 2004NW.....91..455Z. doi: 10.1007/s00114-004-0570-4. ISSN 0028-1042. PMID 15365634. S2CID 3329625. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011 . Retrieved November 6, 2019. Langer, Max C.; Ferigolo, Jorge (January 1, 2013). "The Late Triassic dinosauromorph Sacisaurus agudoensis (Caturrita Formation; Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil): anatomy and affinities". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 379 (1): 353–392. Bibcode: 2013GSLSP.379..353L. doi: 10.1144/SP379.16. ISSN 0305-8719. S2CID 131414332.

Farlow, James O.; Brett-Surman, M.K., eds. (1997). The Complete Dinosaur. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-33349-0. LCCN 97-23698. OCLC 924985811 . Retrieved October 14, 2019. When dinosaurs appeared, they were not the dominant terrestrial animals. The terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of archosauromorphs and therapsids, like cynodonts and rhynchosaurs. Their main competitors were the pseudosuchians, such as aetosaurs, ornithosuchids and rauisuchians, which were more successful than the dinosaurs. [118] Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about 215million years ago, a variety of basal archosauromorphs, including the protorosaurs, became extinct. This was followed by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (about 201million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, phytosaurs, and rauisuchians. Rhynchosaurs and dicynodonts survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early –mid Norian and late Norian or earliest Rhaetian stages, respectively, [119] [120] and the exact date of their extinction is uncertain. These losses left behind a land fauna of crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and turtles. [10] The first few lines of early dinosaurs diversified through the Carnian and Norian stages of the Triassic, possibly by occupying the niches of the groups that became extinct. [12] Also notably, there was a heightened rate of extinction during the Carnian pluvial event. [121] Evolution and paleobiogeography The supercontinent Pangaea in the early Mesozoic (around 200 million years ago) Those dinosaurs which returned to four-legged stance kept all four legs under their body. This is much more efficient than the sprawling legs of a lizard. Prieto-Marquez, Albert; Weishampel, David B.; Horner, John R. (March 2006). "The dinosaur Hadrosaurus foulkii, from the Campanian of the East Coast of North America, with a reevaluation of the genus" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. Warsaw: Institute of Paleobiology, Polish Academy of Sciences. 51 (1): 77–98. ISSN 0567-7920. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 22, 2019 . Retrieved November 5, 2019.Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water. [204] In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. [229] [230] However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. [231] This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca. [232] [233] In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, [234] and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from Anchiornis. [235] Scholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England. Part of a bone, now known to have been the femur of a Megalosaurus, [43] was recovered from a limestone quarry at Cornwell near Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, in 1676. The fragment was sent to Robert Plot, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oxford and first curator of the Ashmolean Museum, who published a description in his The Natural History of Oxford-shire (1677). [44] He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal, and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species. He, therefore, concluded it to be the femur of a huge human, perhaps a Titan or another type of giant featured in legends. [45] [46] Edward Lhuyd, a friend of Sir Isaac Newton, published Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia (1699), the first scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur when he described and named a sauropod tooth, " Rutellum impicatum", [47] [48] that had been found in Caswell, near Witney, Oxfordshire. [49] Sir Richard Owen's coining of the word dinosaur, in the 1842 revised version of his talk at an 1841 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Lhuyd, Edward (1699). Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia[ British figured stones]. London: Ex Officina M.C . Retrieved November 4, 2019. Apex of a deltopectoral crest (a projection on which the deltopectoral muscles attach) located at or more than 30% down the length of the humerus (upper arm bone)